[19] De formatione faetus pennatorum. Ovi historia. CAP. I.

Part II
The formation of the fetus of the birds.
Chapter I
 Description of the egg.

Pennata, omnia ex ovo gigni omnibus notum: quod et si intra se pariunt, non tamen intra se animal gignunt, sed extra, nimirum foras ovo emisso. Sunt nonnulla, quae tum ova, tum foetum intra se pariunt, unde tum ovipara tum vivipara censentur. Talia sunt inter pisces quae ab Aristotele[1] cartilaginea appellantur, ut squatina[2], raia[3], canis[4], seu galius piscis, vulgo Venetiis asiarius[5]; et inter serpentes vipera. Sed nos prius de pullorum formatione, quae extra corpus fit, dicamus, initio ab ovi historia desumpto: quod non modo pulli uterus, et locus est, sed id etiam a quo tota pulli generatio pendet, quam ovum perficit ut agens, ut materia, ut instrumentum, ut locus, et ut alia, siquae concurrunt.

It is a common knowledge that all birds are produced starting from the egg. Even if they make it inside of them, nevertheless they don't produce the animal inside of them, but outside, that is, when the egg has been expelled. There are some animals that give birth inside to both the eggs and the fetus, thence they are classified both oviparous and viviparous. Such are, among the fishes, those called by Aristotle cartilaginous as the angel fish, the ray, the shark or galio, in Venice commonly called asiario, and the viper among the snakes. But it is worthwhile that first I speak about the formation of the chicks occurring outside the body, starting from the description of the egg, since it is not only the uterus and the house of the chick, but from it also the whole formation of the chick depends, that the egg brings to conclusion as agent, matter, instrument, house and other things if some of them are participating.

Ovum omnibus notum a graeca voce {ὠον} <ᾠόν / ὠόν> deductum nomen: sed interponitur v litera euphoniae causa; ita dicitur quasi {ιον} <οἶον> .i. solitarium[6], quia singularia pariat. Non enim veluti caeteri uteri intra se plures gignunt faetus, ita ovum, quod pulli uterus, et locus est, plures sed singularem quemque parit intra se pullum. Quod si interdum ovum duos obtinens vitellos intra se pullum cum quatuor cruribus, duobusque capitibus, aut quatuor alis, et id genus monstra pariat; nunquam tamen duo invicem separati, ut duo dici possint, pulli sunt, sed unus duntaxat corporis truncus est, qui duo capita, quatuor crura, et alia istiusmodi habet annexa.

To all of us it is known that the egg - ovum - is a term drawn from the Greek word řión / řón, but the letter v is added for reasons of euphony. In this way it is almost pronounced oîon, that is, solitary, since it gives birth to one animal at a time. In fact it doesn't behave as the other uteri that produce inside of them quite a lot of feti, thence the egg, which is the uterus and the house of the chick, produces inside many chicks, but one by one. But, if sometimes an egg with two yolks produces inside itself a chick with four legs and two heads or four wings and such monsters, nevertheless they never are two chicks separated from each other so to be considered two, but only a trunk of the body exists, bringing attached two heads, four legs and other such things.

Ovorum variae enumerantur differentiae ab Arist.[7] Quas antequam recenseo, operae pretium duxi, ut exactior sit ovorum varietatis notitia, a summo quodam principio differentias elicere. Videlicet ovum generaliter bifariam sumi, vel proprie, vel improprie. Ovum proprie dictum appello, cui ovi definitio ab Arist.[8] tradita, competit. Ovum est, ex cuius parte animal gignitur, reliquum cibus ei, quod gignitur, est. Improprie vero dictum ovum appello, quod similiter Arist. eodem loco definivit, ex quo toto animal nascitur, ut sunt ova formicarum, muscarum, aranearum, quorundam papilionum, et alia id genus perpusilla, et minuta admodum ova.

By Aristotle several differences are listed among the eggs. Before describing them I thought that it is worthwhile to deduce their differences starting from the fundamental principle, that the data concerning the varieties of eggs are more exact. It is evident that generally the egg can be called in two ways, proper or improper. I define as properly said egg that to which is suitable the definition handed down by Aristotle. It is an egg that part by which the animal is produced, the rest is food for anybody is produced. On the contrary I improperly call with the name of egg, and Aristotle in the same passage defined it in a similar way, that from whose totality an animal is born, as they are the eggs of ants, flies, spiders, of some butterflies and other eggs of this type very little and extremely tiny.

Haec Arist. fere perpetuo veritus est ovi voce nuncupare; sed vermiculi nomine ipsa donavit loco citato[9]: ubi ovorum divisionem afferens dixit, Animalium alia perficere partum, forasque mittere sibi similem, ut ea, quae animal edunt in Lucem: alia nondum explanatum, suamque formam adeptum parere: quorum sanguinea ovum pariunt, exanguia vero vermen: et loco cit. ubi divisionem foetuum animalium ita tradit, In lucem foetu perfecto, aut animal editur, aut ovum, aut vermis; et afferens differentiam inter ovum, et vermen, dixit; Ovum esse, cuius ex parte animal gignitur, ex parte nutritur: vermen autem, ex quo toto animal gignitur. Quia tamen vulgo ova dicuntur et ad sensum potius ova apparent, quam vermes, propterea Arist. ait[10], Scorpiones terrestres vermiculos ovorum specie parere complures, et eis incubare: et lib. eodem c. 28. ait[11], locustas parere vermiculos ovi speciem gerentes.

Aristotle almost always was afraid to call them with the name of egg and in the quoted passage he gave them the name of little worm, and in this passage, reporting the subdivision of the eggs, he told that some animals carry out the delivery and send forth a similar to them, as those giving birth to an animal; others give birth to something that is still indistinct and not yet assumed their aspect, and those endowed with blood circulation give birth to an egg, those without blood circulation give birth to a worm. And in the quoted passage, where he reports the classification of the feti in the following way, he said: once the fetus has been completed, either an animal or an egg or a worm is given to the light. The egg is that from a part of which an animal is produced, from another part it is fed, while a worm is that from whose totality an animal is produced. Nevertheless since - the worms - are commonly called eggs and to the sight they seem more eggs than worms, then Aristotle says that the terrestrial scorpions give birth to a lot of little worms with the aspect of eggs and that they brood them. And in the same book - Historia animalium V - at chapter 28 he says that the locusts give birth to little worms similar to an egg.

Interdum Arist.[12] eiusmodi ova vermes immobiles nuncupavit, ubi distinguens mutuo vermes dixit, aut continuo mobiles esse, aut immobiles: interdum ovi nomini substituit semen cartami, aut milii: ideoque dixit[13] vermen omnia insecta facere, excepto genere quodam papilionum, quod durum quiddam simile cartamo, [20] idest cnici semini producit, sed intus fluidum: et paulo post de generatione papilionum ex erucis ita scribit[14]; Nascuntur papiliones ex erucis, erucae ex virentibus foliis, maximeque ex brassica. Primum minus quid milio consistit in folio; mox vermiculi inde contrahuntur, et accrescunt: tum intra triduum erucae efformantur; inde rupto putamine papiliones exeunt.

Sometimes Aristotle called these eggs as motionless worms, when, distinguishing the worms among them, he said that they are in continuous movement, otherwise motionless. Sometimes he replaced the name of egg with seed of safflower* or of mile*. Therefore he said that all the insects produce a worm, except a kind of butterflies producing something hard, similar to safflower, that is, to the seed of Carthamus tinctorius, but internally fluid. And soon after, about the generation of the butterflies from the caterpillars, he writes this way: the butterflies are born from the caterpillars, the caterpillars from the green leaves, above all from the cabbage. At first in the leaf there is something smaller than a seed of mile, afterwards some little worms come out from it, which grow, then within three days the caterpillars are formed, then the butterflies go out when the shell is broken.

Tandem non dubitavit Aristot.[15] istiusmodi etiam ova simpliciter nuncupare, et locustas in rimis sua ova parere dixit: et bruchorum foeturam ova appellat: et rursus ait[16], cicadas foeminas a coitu suaviores maribus esse: quippe quae ova candida gustui habeant grata, at vermes ovum parere unicolor, et cute molli dixit. denique {soepius} <saepius> ita loquutus est Gal. quoque .v. de comp. med. sec. loc.[17] ova araneorum nominat.

Nevertheless Aristotle didn't hesitate to simply call eggs also those of this type and said that the locusts lay their eggs in the fissures, and he calls eggs the offspring of the caterpillars. And he adds that the female cicadas after the coition are more tasty than the males, since they have candid eggs agreeable to the palate, while he said that the worms produce an egg of only one colour and with a soft wrap. Finally, more frequently also Galen expressed himself this way in De compositione medicamentorum secundum locos V, when he speaks of the eggs of the spiders.

Igitur quae improprie ova vulgo dicuntur ab Arist. passim vermiculi appellantur; interdum vermiculi ovi speciem gerentes, interdum vermiculi immobiles, nonnunquam similia cartamo, aut milio, nonnunquam simpliciter ova. Revera autem et ova, et vermes ea possumus nominare: propterea, quod si ova sunt, parum abest, quin vermes sint, cum pauculo spatio vermes evadant: Quod si vermes sint, tamen ova ad sensum videntur, quod membrana obvolvantur, ut ova, cum interea intus vermen habeant, ut dicit Arist. de locustis: quarum vermiculi terra quadam praetenui tanquam membrana ambiuntur; qua dissecta emergunt locustae, et evolant: et paulo post[18]. Hic concoctione peracta exeunt ex illo terreno amiculo parvae locustae.

Insofar, those commonly and improperly called eggs, by Aristotle are anywhere called little worms, sometimes little worms resembling an egg, sometimes immobile little worms, sometimes similar to safflower or to mile, sometimes simply eggs. In reality we can call them both eggs and worms, since, if they are eggs, they are nearly worms, since shortly they become worms. But, if they are worms, nevertheless to the sight they seem eggs, since as the eggs they are wrapped by a membrane, while in the meantime inside they have a worm, as Aristotle says about the locusts, whose little worms are wrapped by a very thin layer of earth like a membrane, which when has been cut, the locusts go out and fly. And soon after: then, when the maturation ended, small locusts go out of that mantle of earth.

Caeterum hoc loco, ut aequivocatio omnis tollatur, illud scire convenit, quod insecta, quae per coitum gignunt, fere omnia ut plurimum ova pariunt, atque haec in nonnullis in toto generationis cursu, et serie unica sunt, ut in muscis, apibus, vespis, formicis: in nonnullis duplicia, ut in erucis, locustis, sericinis animalibus bombicibus, et omnibus, quibus animal non unicam, sed duplam, aut trinam generationem subit, et in aliam speciem mutatur.

Besides, at this point, so that every misunderstanding is eliminated, it is worthwhile to know that almost all the insects giving birth through the coition, for the greater part give birth to eggs, and these in some insects, during the whole course of the generation, are only of one type, as in flies, bees, wasps and ants; in some insects they are of two types, as in grubs, locusts, silkworms and in all those in which the animal undergoes not only one, but two or to three generations and turns into another appearance.

Nam sericina animalia primum ova sunt, quae mutantur in vermes, inde vermes iustum incrementum assecuti sese in folliculum a se ipsis fabricatum includunt, et evadunt Aureliae {χρυσάλιδες} <χρυσαλλίδες> ita ab Arist. dictae[19], quae sunt fere immobiles: et paulo post tertio evadunt papiliones, qui rupto folliculo foras evolant. In iis igitur, quarum trina succedit generatio, bina conspiciuntur ova, videlicet prima, ex quibus primo vermis gignitur; et secunda, in quae postea veluti in folliculos sese includunt.

In fact the silkworms are at first eggs turning into worms, then the worms, after having acquired a correct growth, withdraw in a little sac made by themselves and become aureliae - golden, by Aristotle called chrysallídes chrysalises - golden, almost motionless. And soon after, thirdly, butterflies go out flying out after having broken the cocoon. Therefore in them, whose generation occurs in three steps, two types of eggs are seen, that is, the first type from which at first a worm is produced, and the second type in which later they enclose themselves as being a little sac.

Sunt praeterea nonnulla ova unica quidem, sed tamen quae prima, seu {primogenia} <primigenia> non sunt, hoc est a principio non apparent. sed postea, ut sunt erucae illae, quae sponte naturae oriuntur, quae a principio vermiculi sunt, {possea} <postea> auctae, et erucae factae sese in folliculum includunt, qui ovi speciem refert. Nullum horum proprie ovum appellavit Arist. sed vermem; tamen ab ovi specie ambo ova dixit, hoc est, et unica, et duplicia pluribus in locis. Nam de primo ovo ait[20], quod erucae, et foetus aranearum, et complurium aliorum primordia esse videntur ova, quod propter figurae orbiculatam speciem ova appareant, et locustas in rimis sua ova parere asseruit[21].

Besides there are some eggs being unique, but however they are not such from the beginning or produced as such, that is, initially they don't seem eggs, but subsequently, as they are those caterpillars born for will of nature, which initially are little worms, subsequently, after increased and became caterpillars, they withdraw in a little sac seeming an egg. Aristotle didn't call any of them in an appropriate way with the term of egg, but with that of worm, even if he called both eggs since they have the aspect of an egg, that is, both unique and double in many passages. In fact about the first egg he says that the caterpillars and the feti of the spiders and the sketches of many other animals seem to be eggs, since, because of the round appearance, they seem eggs, and he affirmed that the locusts lay their eggs in the fissures.

De secundo autem ovo loco citato de gen. an.[22] paulo infra Arist. dicit, omne hoc vermiculi genus, ubi suae magnitudinis finem receperit, quasi ovum efficitur: indurescit enim putamen eorum, et tantisper immota redduntur{.}<,> quod in vermiculis apum, et vesparum, atque etiam in erucis apertum est.

About the second egg, which few ahead is present in the quoted passage of De generatione animalium, Aristotle says that this whole kind of little worms, when reached the maximum of its dimensions, becomes a sort of egg: in fact their covering hardens and in the meantime they become immobile, which is evident in the little worms of bees and wasps, as well as in caterpillars.

[21] Quia vero eiusmodi ab Arist. potius vermes, quam ova dicuntur, ideo subiungit causam, cur non ova, sed vermes appellentur: dicens ovum nequaquam figura, aut mollitie, aut duritie definiendum esse. etenim sunt conceptus nonnullorum duri, quamvis, ovo diversi: sed quod totum mutetur, nec ex parte eius animal gignatur, id vermis est, inquit Arist.[23]

But since such formations by Aristotle are called worms instead of eggs, therefore he adds the reason of why they are not called eggs, but worms, saying that an egg doesn't absolutely have to be so defined according to the aspect, or to the softness, or to the hardness. In fact the conceptions of some animals are hard even if different from an egg. But Aristotle says that it is a worm all which is completely changing and from one its section an animal is not produced.

Et de ovis improprie dictis, videlicet eorumque differentiis hactenus. At ova proprie dicta, quorum ex parte animal gignitur, et ex parte nutritur, de quibus sermo a nobis potissimum instituendus est. Arist. divisit in perfecta, et imperfecta[24]. Perfecta dixit, quae in utero absolvuntur, et consummantur: Imperfecta vero, quae excluduntur debitam magnitudinem minime assecuta, sed extra postea adaugentur, ut piscium ova, et crustatorum, et mollium. Nos in praesentia: aliis posthabitis, de perfectis agemus: quorum differentiae desumuntur a colore, figura, magnitudine, duritie, et mollitie, faecunditate, et id genus aliis.

Until here as far as the improperly called eggs and their differences are concerned. But above all we have to plan a discourse about the properly called eggs, by a part of which an animal is produced and by the other part is fed. Aristotle subdivided them into perfect and imperfect. He called perfect those completed and ended in the uterus, imperfect those laid without having reached at all the due size, but subsequently growing outside, as the eggs of fishes, crustaceans and molluscs. Now, postponing the other things, I will devote myself to the treatment of those perfect, whose differences are gathered from colour, shape, size, hardness and softness, from fertility and other things of this sort.

A Colore, quia alba sunt, ut bona eorum pars, videlicet columbarum, perdicum, Gallinarum, ut ait Aristo. loco citato[25]: alia alterius coloris, videlicet pallida, ὠχρὰ graece ut palustrium: aut rubicunda ut tinnunculi: et haec vel unius coloris sunt, ut iam proposita: vel maculata, aut punctis {dictincta} <distincta>, ut phasianorum, meleagridum.

From the colour, since they are white, as it happens for a good part of them, that is, those of doves, partridges, hens, or chickens, as Aristotle says in the quoted passage. Others are of another colour, that is yellowish, in Greek řchrŕ - pale yellow, as those of marsh birds, or reddish as those of kestrel* - Falco tinnunculus, and these are uniform in colour, as those just quoted, or speckled or spotted as those of pheasants* and Guinea fowls*.

Figura, quia alia ova sunt perfecte rotunda, ut piscium; alia oblonga, quae dupliciter adhuc variant: alia enim ex altero extremo latiora, crassiora, et obtusiora, ex altero acutiora, ut Gallinarum, alia aequalia ex utroque extremo sunt, ut serpentum. Rursus magnitudine quoque variant: quod alia minima, ut piscium, formicarum; alia parva, ut avicularum, et serpentum: alia magna, ut Gallinarum: alia maxima, ut anserum, et pavonum: alia perquam maxima, ut struthiocameli, e quorum putaminibus ferunt Aethyopes casas suas tegere.

For the shape, since some eggs are perfectly round as those of fishes, others are oblong, which in addition have two variations: in fact some at one extremity are wider, thicker and more obtuse, at the other extremity they are more acute, as those of the hens; others are identical at both extremities as those of the snakes. Besides they also vary in size, since some are very small, as those of fishes and ants, others are small, as those of birdies and snakes, others are big, as those of the hens, others are very big, as those of geese and peacocks, others extremely big, as those of the ostrich, with whose shells, they say, the Ethiopians cover their huts.

Item differunt ova per mollitiem, et duritiem: appello autem dura ova, quae cortice donantur; mollia, quae eo carent: unde alia sine duro cortice, ut serpentum; alia cum ipso sunt, ut caetera: atque hae differentiae ab exterius positis desumuntur. Rursus ova inter se differunt per ea, quae interius adsunt: qua ratione ait Arist.[26] alia plus lutei, ut palustria, alia minus habent, ut alia. Potissima autem ovorum differentia (ni fallor) desumitur ab ovi foecunditate, secundum quam alia irrita sunt, alia foecunda.

Likewise, the eggs differ for softness and hardness. In fact I call hard eggs those endowed with shell, soft those lacking in it. Therefore some are without shell as those of the snakes, others have it, as it happens for the other eggs. These differences are inferred in turn by the external characteristics. Besides the eggs differ among them for their content, thence Aristotle says that some have a larger quantity of yolk, as those of marsh birds, others have less of it as it happens for the other eggs. If I am not mistaken, the most important difference of the eggs is inferred from the fertility of the egg, according to which some are sterile, others fertile.

Potissimam autem hanc esse differentiam ex eo patet, quod his imprimis sunt nomina propria indita, qualia sunt ova subventanea, Zephyria, canicularia, urina, hypenemia, {synosira} <cynosura>. Ovum subventaneum, et irritum latinis, Aristoteli[27] vero {ἀνεμινῖον} <ἀνεμιαῖον>[28] et {ὑπενέμιον} <ὑπηνέμιον>[29], Platoni {ἀνεμίδιον} <ἀνεμιαῖον>[30] et Aphrodiseo ἐξούρισαν ita dicitur, quod vento conceptum sit[31], e quo gigni nihil potest. Antiqui enim opinabantur ovum vento concipi posse, propterea quod tunc ova gignunt pennata, cum singulares quidam venti flant: inter quos Arist. voluit[32], praecipuum esse Zephyrum; unde Zephyria ova appellata quoque sunt: eo quod, ut dicit Arist. verno tempore aves flatus illos foecundos ex Favonio seu Zephyro recipere videantur.

That this is the more important difference is clear from the fact that first of all to the eggs of the first type some specific names have been assigned, as windy eggs, zephyrian, of dog days, breezy, full of wind, of the dog days of August*. The windy and fruitless egg for Latins, for Aristotle is called anemiaîon and hypënémion, anemiaîon for Plato* and exoúrisan - which sent forth wind? - for Alexander of Aphrodisias*, since it would be conceived by the wind, by which nothing can be generated. In fact the ancients thought that the egg was able to be conceived by the wind since the birds produce eggs when unusual winds are blowing, among which Aristotle wanted that the principal is Zephyr*, thence have also been called zephyrian eggs, since, as Aristotle says, in spring it seems that the birds receive those fertile breaths from Foehn* or Zephyr.

Utrum autem aut per os, aut per vulvam, aut per totius corporis poros, aves favonium recipiant, non ita liquet. Neque mirandum, priscos credidisse, ova a vento quopiam generari, cum quoque in Hispania, hoc est Lusitania ex vento equas concipere, et tres annos tantum vivere Varro testetur 2. de re rustica[33], et {Virg.} <Verg.> 3. Georgicorum[34]. Subdit [22] Arist.[35] idem fieri, hoc est generari ova subventanea, seu Zephyria si digito in genitale palpetur. Ova haec Arist.[36] stericia, et minora, ac minus iucundi saporis, et magis humida, quam ea, quae foecunda gignuntur, sed plura numero esse ait.

It is not so clear if the birds receive the Foehn through the mouth, or through the vulva, or through the pores of the whole body. Neither we have to marvel if the ancients believed that the eggs are produced by a wind, since Varro in Rerum rusticarum II is witness of the fact that also in Spain, more precisely in Lusitania, the mares conceive thanks to the wind, and that - the colts - live only three years, and also Virgil writes this in Georgics III. Aristotle adds that the same thing happens, that is, some windy or zephyrian eggs are produced if with a finger the genital area is fondled. Aristotle says that these eggs are sterile, smaller, of less pleasant taste and damper than those produced fertile, but he says that they are very numerous.

Ova quoque graece appellantur αὐτόματα idest spontanea, quod sponte oriantur, idest sine semine, et utero. Ultimo dicuntur ova urina, et {synosira} <cynosura>, quae a grammaticis cum praedictis confunduntur propter etymon, quod uros ventum significet: sed diversa sunt, ut ex Plinio, et Arist. patet, qui ait, esse ova depravata, vitello corrupto, et diffuso, eo modo, quo vinum aestate faece subversa corrumpitur. Plinius[37] autem urina ova dicit esse ex incubatione derelicta, et idem habet Arist. 6. de hist. ani. cap. 4.[38] His de ovorum differentiis ita exploratis iam ovi compositionem aggrediamur.

The eggs in Greek are also called autómata, that is, spontaneous, since they would be born spontaneously, that is, without semen and uterus. Finally they are called windy eggs, and of the dog days of August, which by the philologists are confused with the previous ones because of the etymology, since oűros - in Greek - means wind. But they are different, as it clearly comes out from Pliny, as well as from Aristotle who says they are spoiled eggs, with altered and dispersed yolk, just as the wine ruins in summer when its dregs have been remixed. But Pliny says that the windy eggs are those coming from an interrupted incubation and Aristotle reports the same thing in Historia animalium VI,4. After having so analysed these differences of the eggs, let us now devote to the composition of the egg.

Componitur ovum ex vitello, albumine, chalazis duabus, tribus membranis, videlicet una vitelli propria, duabus totius ovi communibus, demum cortice: quibus duo addenda sunt, quae vere ovi partibus annumerari non possunt: Alterum est quaedam exigua cavitas in obtusiore ovi parte intus prope putamen efformata; Alterum perexiguum, albumque vestigium quasi rotunda cicatricula[39] vitelli superficiei adnata. Quorum omnium historia exactius nobis afferenda est, ab externis exordientibus.

The egg is composed by yolk, albumen, two chalazae, three membranes, that is, one belonging to the yolk and two in common to the whole egg, finally by the shell. To these things we have to add two things which cannot be correctly included in the parts constituting the egg: one consists in a small cavity, in correspondence of the obtuse part of the egg, formed inside and in proximity of the shell, the other one is a very little and white structure similar to a small round cicatrix grown up on the surface of the yolk. Of all these structures I must give a more accurate description, starting from the external ones.

Ovi exterius operculum, cortex, et Putamen appellatur a Plinio[40]: ovi testa a Quinto Sereno[41]: graece autem pluribus vocatur nominibus ὄστρακον Aristoteli[42] λεπύριον et κέλυφος Hippocrati[43], λέμμα Aristophani[44]; λέπος Anatolio[45]; quae omnia nomina testam duram, et squamosam significant.[46] Est enim exterius ovi integumentum durum, tenue, friabile, porosum, colore vario, nimirum candido, pallido, rubro, maculato, et punctis distincto: videlicet gallinarum, et columbarum candido, palustrium pallido, tinnunculi rubro, ut minium, Phasianorum maculato, punctisque distincto, ut ait Arist.[47]

The most external covering of the egg - the shell - is called cortex and putamen by Pliny, ovi testa by Quintus Serenus Sammonicus*. In Greek it is called with several names: óstrakon for Aristotle, lepýrion and kélyphos for Hippocrates*, lémma for Aristophanes*, lépos for Vindanius Anatolius*, all terms meaning hard and rough shell. In fact the external covering of the egg is hard, thin, friable, porous, of varying colour, that is, white, yellowish, red, mottled and punctuated. That is: white that of hens and doves, yellowish that of marsh birds, reddish as the minium that of the kestrel - Falco tinnunculus*, spotted and speckled that of the pheasants*, as Aristotle says.

Putamen non omnia ova sortita sunt. Etenim serpentium ova eo destituuntur, et gallinae aliquot solent, raro tamen, sine cortice ovum parere: id quod Aristo.[48] vitio quopiam evenire scribit, ova cuncta volucrum duro putamine constare tradidit. Putamen quanquam durum est, non tamen aequaliter in omnibus partibus durum apparet, sed durius ad ovi principium, et superiorem partem est. Appellat autem Arist.[49] superiorem ovi partem, et principium, acutam ovi partem, quae posterius exit. Sed haec sententia evidentibus consentire non videtur, quia pars obtusior, ovi principium est, videlicet pulli principium; nisi forte Arist. ovi principium distinguat a pulli principio, aut codex depravatus sit.

Not all the eggs are endowed with shell. In fact the eggs of the snakes are lacking it and some hens usually lay an egg without shell, though rarely. Aristotle writes that this happens because of some defect and affirmed that all the eggs of the birds are endowed with a hard shell. Even if the shell is hard, nevertheless it doesn't appear equally hard in all the points, but it is harder near the point where the egg begins and in the superior part. Aristotle defines the acute pole of the egg as superior part and beginning of the egg, which goes out for last. But this affirmation doesn't seem to be supported by the evidence, since the obtuse pole is the beginning of the egg, that is, the origin of the chick. Unless perhaps Aristotle distinguishes the beginning of the egg from the point of origin of the chick, or that the code is corrupt.

Sed si dicamus, Arist. errasse, eius error ab eo forte fluxit, quia falso existimavit pro ovi augmento appendiculam quasi umbilicum, acutae ovi parti appensam esse, ex qua augmentum ovo accedit, id quod sensui non consentire supra demonstratum est. Sub putamine duae consistunt membranae totum investientes ovum; quarum prima cortici proxima, firmior, crassior, minusque mollis, quam subiecta liquoribus contigua. Postea albumen, vitellus, et chalazae apparent.

But if we say that Aristotle has been wrong, perhaps his mistake came from having erroneously judged that a small appendix, similar to a navel, hanging on the acute part of the egg, was useful to the growth of the egg, through which the growth to the egg is coming; a thing previously shown as not corresponding to the experience. Under the shell there are two membranes wholly covering the egg, the first is near the shell, is stronger, thicker and less soft than that laying below and in contact with the liquids. Then the albumen, the yolk and the chalazae are seen.

Albumen, ovi albus liquor Plinio[50], ovi candidum Celso[51], ovi albor Palladio[52]; Item ovi album, et albamentum Apicio[53]. Graece λευκὸν; ab Arist. {ὤου} <ὠοῦ> λεύκωμα; ab Anaxagora[54] ut apud Atheneum[55] ὄρνιθος γάλα .i. lac avium dicitur: quod idem sensit Alcmaeon Crotoniates[56], ut refert Arist.[57] Est ovi liquor frigidus, lentus, albus, varius crassitie. (Nam ad obtusam, [23] acutamque ovi partem liquidius, in aliis partibus crassius visitur:) et copia (copiosior enim est ad obtusam ovi partem, minus ad acutam, et adhuc minus in caetera ovi parte) vitellum undique obtegens, et cingens.

The albumen for Pliny is ovi albus liquor – white fluid of the egg, ovi candidum for Celsus*, ovi albor for Palladius*, in addition ovi album and albamentum for Apicius*. In Greek it is called leukón; by Aristotle řoű leúkřma – white of the egg; by Anaxagoras*, as by Athenaeus*, is called órnithos gála - milk of bird / of hen, that is, milk of the birds; Alcmaeon of Croton* was thinking the same thing, as Aristotle reports. The liquid of the egg is cold, viscous, white, varying for density (in fact toward the obtuse and acute part of the egg it appears more liquid, denser in the other parts) and for quantity (in fact it is more abundant toward the obtuse part of the egg, lesser toward that acute one, and still lesser in all other part of the egg) covers and surrounds the yolk on all sides.

Vitellus autem a vita sic dictus est, quod eo vivat pullus: dicitur quoque a colore ovi luteum: graece χρυσὸν Hippocrati[58] χλωρὸν Aristoteli[59] ὠχρὸν, et {λέχυτον} <λέκιθον>: Antiqui (ut Suidas[60] ex {menandro} <Menandro[61])> νεοττὸν .i. pullum appellarunt: quod existimarent ex ea ovi parte pullum nasci. Est ovi liquor mollissimus, tenuissima membrana obductus: qua abrupta effluit, neque amplius in se constans detinetur; in medio ovi consistens: colore modo luteo, modo inter flavum, et pallidum medio, perfecte rotundus, magnitudine varius, pro pennatorum magnitudinis varietate, palustria enim plus lutei, terrestria plus albi habere scribit Arist.[62] Unicus vitellus in quoque ovo est, raro duo reperiuntur, alter alteri superpositus, ut in maioribus ovis.

The vitellus - or yolk - is so called from the life - vita, since thanks to it the chick lives. For the colour it is also called yellow of the egg: in Greek it sounds chrysós - gold, for Hippocrates chlřrós - yellow green, for Aristotle řchrós - yellow - and lékithos - legumes purée. The ancients (as the lexicon Suidas*, drawing it from Menander*) called it neottós - baby of bird, that is, chick, since they thought that the chick was born from that part of the egg. The yolk is a very soft liquid of the egg, wrapped by a very thin membrane; when this is broken the yolk escapes and stops to be gathered together. It is at the centre of the egg, sometimes is yellow in colour, sometimes between yellowish and pale yellow, perfectly round, of varying size according to the different size of the birds. In fact Aristotle writes that marsh birds have more yolk, that the terrestrial ones have more albumen. In every egg only one yolk is found, rarely two are found, one overlapping the other, as in the larger eggs.

Chalazae .i. grando[63], seu grandines. Sic enim appellantur ab Arist.[64] {sunt} <Sunt> uti alias dictum est, duo corpora grandini similia, alba, concreta, nodosa, luciditatis cuiusdam non expertia, ut grando. Haec non in albumine quidem solum degunt, sed vitello magis, quam albumini adhaerescunt, eiusque membranae appenduntur. Longiusculaque sunt, ita ut in decocto ovo ex altero extremo ipsi vitello, ex altero membranae albumini proximae, et superstanti appendantur. Sunt duae chalazae, uti quoque Arist. dicit[65] altera, et minor in acuta ovi parte consistens, altera in latiore, et obtusa, quae maior est[66], et longior ex duobus, aut tribus nodis quasi grandinis granis, globulisque conflatae, ita modico intervallo inter se distantibus{.}<,> ut alter alterum tenui substantia eiusdem generis quasi funiculo coniungat, et copulet.

The chalazae, that is, hail or hails. In fact they are so called by Aristotle. As elsewhere it was said, they are two formations similar to hail, white, dense, knotty, not devoid of a certain brightness as the hail. They don't lie only in the albumen, but they stick more to the yolk than to the albumen and are attached to the membrane of the yolk. And they are rather long, so that, in a boiled egg, at one extremity they are attached to the yolk itself, at the other extremity they are attached to the membrane placed near and overhanging the albumen. The chalazae are two, as also Aristotle says, one, the smaller, is located in the acute side of the egg, the other is placed in the wider and obtuse side, and it is the greatest and the longest, composed by two or three nodular structures similar to grains and spherules of hail, so few distant each other to connect and unite the knots each other with thin substance of the same type as if being a twine.

In Indica gallina, et maioribus avibus plures visuntur globuli, et nodi; et propter plures nodos, quasi grandines, quos utraque chalaza obtinet, chalazae in plurali numero, non chalaza in singulari, ab Arist. (uti opinor) dictae sunt[67]. Quod si nos per singularem interdum pronunciamus, causa est, ne aequivocatio cadat, dum alteram alteri comparamus, videlicet eam quae in obtusiore, et eam quae acutiore est ovi parte ut Arist. quoque dixit has duas chalazas, alteram parti superiori vitelli, alteram inferiori iunctam. Hae reperiuntur indifferenter in ovo gallum experto, et non experto: perpetuoque adsunt. Neque enim ego non adesse unquam comperii.

In the turkey hen and in rather large birds a greater number of spherules and nodular structures is seen, and because of the numerous knots, similar to grains of hail, possessed by both the chalazae, in my opinion by Aristotle they have been called chalazae in the plural, not chalaza in the singular. But, if we sometimes say in the singular, the reason is so that a misunderstanding doesn't occur when we compare one with the other, that is, that located in the obtuse part and that located in the acute part of the egg, as also Aristotle said that these two chalazae are joined one to the upper part of the yolk, the other to the lower. They are indifferently found in one egg which has known and has not known the cock, and they are always present. In fact, I never ascertained their absence.

Quod si aliquando ovum chalazis destitutum invenias, dicas, id omnino praeter naturam esse, et rarissime contingere, aut analogon quid esse positum, ut in minimis ovis: ego sane, ovo omisso anserino, indico, gallinaceo et nostratis gallinae, in quibus magnitudine effatu dignae {calazae} <chalazae>, inveni insuper manifeste in columbo domestico, nec non turrita adesse {calazas} <chalazas>: quinimo conspectui sese quoque obtulerunt, vel etiam in perquam exiguis passerculorum ovis, in quibus perinde tenuissimus, albusque pilus, aut filum, aut nervulus, oculorum acie fuit cernere, sed id tantummodo in claro sole primaque eius luce a sole proficiscente, nequaquam in secunda; ut ex his concludendum videatur, consentaneum esse omnibus {calazas} <chalazas> adesse ovis, abstinui autem formicarum ova, et alia id genus perquam minima contemplari, ratus oculi hominis aciem illuc non perventuram, sed {calazis} <chalazis> analogon quid in similibus immensae exiguitatis ovis supponendum esse conieci.

But if sometimes you find an egg deprived of chalazae, you could say that this fact is completely unnatural and that very rarely happens, or that in it is present something analogous to what is present in very small eggs. In truth, omitting the egg of goose, of turkey hen, of hen and of native hen, in which the chalazae are worth mentioning for their size, I have found in a very clear manner that the chalazae are present in the domestic pigeon and also in the rock dove: that or rather also these have been visible, even also in tiny eggs of small sparrows, in which likewise it has been possible to see, sharpening the sight, a very thin white hair, or a thread, or a filament, but only with a shining sun and at its first light radiating from the sun, never at the second. Although from these things it seems that we must conclude that it is truthful the fact that the chalazae are present in all the eggs, however I abstained from observing the eggs of ants and other very small eggs of this type, aware of the fact that the eyes of the human being would not reach that point of visual sharpness, but I have inferred that we have to suppose that something analogous to the chalazae is present in similar very small eggs.

Iam igitur omnia corpora ovum [24] componentia descripta, et proposita sunt. Nunc duo alia, quae potius ovi affectiones, quam partes appellare licet, recensenda supersunt. Unum est alba veluti cicatricula perexigua, rotunda, et plana, ut circulus lentis magnitudinem aequans quae cuique vitello impressa, adnataque conspicitur: quam existimavimus esse ipsius pedusculi separationis vestigium. Eam in magno vitello duplicem aliquando observavimus, alteram alteri satis propinquam, et alteram altera minorem{.}<,> quod duplici pediculo fuerit merito donatus, quo firmius magnus vitellus ovario, seu racemo appenderetur: quod ita esse, propinquitas utriusque manifestat.

Therefore finally all the parts composing the egg have been described and expounded. Now two other structures remain to be examined, which can be called pathologies of the egg instead of components. One resembles a very small white scar, round and flat, which for size is identical to the circumference of a lentil, and which is seen engraved and born on each yolk: I have thought that it is a residue of the separation of the stalk. Sometimes in a great yolk we have seen it double, one enough near to the other and one smaller than the other, since rightly the yolk would have been endowed with two stalks, so that a big yolk was suspended in a firmer way to the ovary or cluster. That the things were so their mutual proximity is showing.

Alterum est exigua quaedam cavitas in obtusiore parte intus prope putamen efformata, non exacte in cacumine, sed ad latus, et inferius {quadantenus} <quadamtenus> oblique, procedensque interius e directo subiecta respondet chalazae, quam intueberis ovo adversa luce posito. In gallinis, et aliis plerisque circulum refert: in anate, et ansere cavitas quidem adest perpetuo, sed exacte circulum non refert. Ea si conspiciatur simul, atque ovum editum est, et recentissimum, perexigua apparet, ut perexiguus nummulus vulgo soldino appellatus, fereque minimi digiti unguem non excedit: sensim tamen subinde maior redditur, quo requieta magis ova sunt, ut puta ab ambiente exiccato ea parte paullatim albumine: sed in pullo iam in ovo efformato adhuc amplior efficitur: amplissima autem est, {itaut} <ita ut> propemodum ovi medietatem aequet, et obliqua admodum, cum pullus grandis est, et ad exitum properat.

The other structure is a small cavity internally produced in correspondence of the obtuse pole close to the shell, not exactly at the apex, but sideways and a little obliquely downward, and pushing itself inside is in direct correspondence with the chalaza, and you will see it by placing the egg against the light. In the hens and in most other birds it has a circular shape. In the duck and in the goose the cavity is always present, but it is not exactly circular. If it is observed as soon as the egg has been laid and when is very fresh, the cavity appears very small, as a very small coin commonly called soldino - little coin, and almost it doesn't overcome in size the fingernail of the little finger. Nevertheless subsequently it slowly becomes greater as far as the eggs are older, that is, the surrounding albumen having slowly dried up in that point. But it becomes even more big in the chick when then the latter has formed in the egg: in fact the former is very large so to match almost the half of the egg, and is very oblique when the chick is large and hastens to go out.

Fere semper unica visitur: semel tamen in cocto ovo triplicem inveni, unam alteri contiguam, omnes sane in cacumine positas, duas tamen aequales, tertiam minorem. Hanc cavitatem cupio vos non oscitanter observare propter usus non vulgares, quos praebere suo loco audietis; necessitatem huius cavitatis coniicies ex duobus; primum ex ratione Arist. desumpta a testibus, quod scilicet huius {neccessitatis} <necessitatis> ratio inde habetur, quia omnibus perpetuo inest ovis: Deinde, quia cum ovo descendente per partem obtusam cavitas adest; repleri sane tota obtusa pars deberet ex pondere corporum ovi internorum, natura tamen ne id succedat, et cavitas omnino ea parte paretur, ovi membranam prope corticem ubique positam, inibi circulo circum corticem alligat relicta ea corticis parte sine membrana, ut cavitas memorata insculpta remaneat[68].

Almost always only one is seen, nevertheless only once in a cooked egg I have found three of them, one next to the other, all located just at the apex, nevertheless two were identical, the third was smaller. I would like that you attentively observe this cavity because of the uncommon employments it offers, as you will know at the proper time. You will infer the necessity of this cavity from two things. Firstly from Aristotle's reasoning drawn from the proofs, that is, that the reason of its necessity comes from the fact that it is always present in all the eggs; then because, together with the egg going down with the obtuse side, a cavity is present; actually the whole obtuse portion should fill because of the weight of the inner structures of the egg, but, so that this doesn't happen, and so that the cavity is entirely made ready at that side, the nature makes the membrane to stick anywhere to the shell and in that point does this in a circular way, leaving without membrane that part of shell so that the aforesaid cavity remains shaped.

Illam omnino intueberis, si totum ovi corticem dimidiatim dividas, et tum interius tum exterius cortice ea parte abrupto inspicias; interius enim membranae planum circulum: exterius vero nudum et solum corticem conspicies. In tenuiori vero et interna ovi parte ad eius acumen cavitatem eiusmodi conspicies nullam. Hanc cavitatem eam puto esse, quae Plinio[69] dicitur ceu gutta eminens in putamine, quae a cacumine inest. Nam humor mobilis, ut gutta, visitur in anate indica[70], et nonnullis quoque aliis: eaque praeterea pars est, quae etiam ovi umbilicus esse censetur, propterea quod inibi foetus suae generationis initium sumat. Etenim foetus in media hac cavitate palpitare incipit, ubi etiam Chalaza consistit. Plinius autem ab Arist.[71] id totum desumpsit. Et de ovi historia hactenus.

You can see it surely if you divide in half the whole shell of the egg and you will look both inside and outside after having broken the shell in that point. In fact inside you will see a flat circle of the membrane, while externally you will see only the naked shell. In the thinnest and inner part of the egg toward its acute pole you won't see any cavity of this type. I think that this cavity is that said by Pliny to be as a drop sticking out in the shell, which is placed above the extremity. In fact a mobile liquid, like a drop, is visible in the Indian duck and in some others, furthermore it is that part thought to be the navel of the egg, that's why the fetus would begin here its generation. In fact the fetus starts to palpitate at the centre of this cavity, where also the chalaza is placed. But Pliny gathered all this from Aristotle. Until here the description of the egg.

[26] Figurarum in quibus ovi compositio demonstratur explicatio.

Explanation of the figures where is described the composition of the egg

Primae figurae.
A. Vitellus ovi.
B. Cicatricula rotunda ipsius Vitelli.
CC. Membrana vitelli propria.
D. Maior C<h>alaza.
E. Minor C<h>alaza.
FFF. Albumen.
GGG. Membranae totius ovi.

Figure 1
A – The egg yolk
B – The round little scar of the yolk
CC – The membrane belonging to the yolk
D – The larger chalaza
E – The smaller chalaza
FFF – Albumen
GGG – The membrane of the whole egg

Secundae figurae.
I.  Cicatricula alba vitelli.

Figure 2
I – The white little cicatrix of the yolk

Tertiae figurae.
KK. C<h>alazae ovi columbarum.

Figure 3
KK – The chalazae of pigeons' egg

Quartae figurae.
L.  Ovum rotundum.

Figure 4
L – A round egg

Quintae figurae.
M.  Ovum oblungum.

Figure 5
M – An elongate egg

Sextae figurae.
N.  Ovum parvum {qaod} <quod> centeninum dicitur.

Figure 6
N – A small egg called centenino - hundredth

Septimae figurae.
O.  Ovum centeninum corticatum.

Figure 7
O – A centenino - hundredth - egg with shell

Octavae figurae.
P. Ovum centeninum sine cortice.
Q. Vitellus ex albumine factus.
R. Albumen.
S.  C<h>alazae.

Figure 8
P - A centenino - hundredth - egg without shell
Q – The yolk formed from the albumen
R – Albumen
S - Chalazae